Profiling is the action of summarizing a set of data in a smaller mathematical model. One of the practical usages of profiling techniques is the classification of sequences. With a data set profile, you may calculate the distance of an instance to the model, and classify the instance trough this value.
Profiling proteins is a more specific case of profiling sequences. As we know from the previous ṕost about
Hidden Markov Models (HMMs) is a very robust mathematical model to represent probabilistically sequences. This post will detail how to profile sets of proteins with a HMM model.
The HMM model for this problem must be a HMM which when we calculate a probability of generation of a protein by the model, must give higher probabilities for proteins similar for the ones used to create the profile against the others.
To build the model, I've started with a
multiple sequence alignment to see how is the structure of the sequences. That means that our HMM will be a probabilistic representation of a multiple alignment. With the alignment we see that some columns are complete and some are almost, and the others have few data. These most common matches can be used as a common matches for our model and the deletions and insertions can be modelled as other states. Here is an example of a few sequences aligned and the core columns of the alignment (marked with an *):
A C - - - - A T G
T C A A C T A T C
A C A C - - A G C
A G A - - - A T C
A C C G - - A T C
* * * * * *
With this sample of alignment we have examples of insertions and deletions between the core alignments, which may have a state on the HMM to represent them. Note that insertions may occur on arbitrary times between the matching states. And the deletion states always replaces some matching. One possible HMM template for building the model is presented in the following picture:
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| HMM protein profile model |
Each matching state (Mj) is related to the matching on the jth core alignment. The same applies for deletion state (Dj). The insertion is slightly different, because it represents the insertions between the core alignments, that's why it has one extra state, and this enable to represent states before the first and after the last alignment.
Our model will be like the one in the picture with the same length as the core alignments of a multiple alignment for a given set of sequences. However we should use
maximum likelihood to estimate the transitions and emission for each state. The easiest way to count the total emissions/transitions, is to thread each sequence to be profiled in the model. For each symbol in the aligned sequence you must check if the symbol is in the core alignment. If it is, then increment the count of that state to the next match state, otherwise, you go to the insertion state. If it is a deletion, go to the deletion state and increment the transition. Finally, to calculate the probability for the transitions, just divide the count of each transition and divide it by all the states leaving the same state. It's important to notice that we have a stopping state, and this is a special state that has no transitions.
Note that is important to initialize the model with pseudo counts at each possible transitions. Adding this pseudo count, we let our model less rigid and avoid overfitting to the train set. Otherwise we could have some zero probabilities for some sequences.
To create the emissions probabilities, at each match state, you also have to count which symbol was emitted and then increment them. To calculate the probability, just divide it by the total symbols matched in the threading process.
The similar process could be done with the insertion. However, the insertion states are characterized by having a low occurrence rate and this may lead us directly to a overfitting problem because the number of emissions must be too small. To avoid this we should use the background distribution as the emissions probabilities of each insertion state. The background distribution is the probability of the occurrence of a given amino acid in the entire protein set. To calculate this, count each amino acid type for all the train set sequence and then divided by the total count.
For the deletion states, it's important to notice that it is a silent state. It doesn't emit any symbol at all. To signalize it in ghmm, just let all the emissions probabilities with 0. Note that the end state is also a silent state once we have no emission associated to it.
ALERT: the loglikelihood is the only function in the ghmm library which handles silent states correctly.
At this point, the model is ready for use. However we have a problem of how to classify a new protein sequence. A threshold could be used to divide the two classes. However, the most common alternative is to use a null model to compare with it. The null model is a model which aims represents any protein with similar probability as any other. With this two models we could take a sequence and compare if it is more similar to a general definition of a protein or to a specific family. This model should model a sequence with average size equal to the aligned sequences being handled, and should emit any kind of symbol at each position. A common alternative for creating the null model, is using a single insertion state, which goes to a stopping state with probability of 1 divided by the average length of sequences in the train set. For the emissions probability, we should use the background distribution, because this is related to the general amino acid distribution. At the end, the model should be like this:
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| Null Model |
For testing the proposed model, I used a set of 100
globin proteins from the
NCBI protein repository as a train set to build a profile model, and used
ghmm to build and test the model.
To test if our model corresponds to our expectations, 100 globins different from the ones in the trains set were used with 1800 other random proteins with similar length. The loglikelihood function from the ghmm library to calculate the similarity index. The classification of the globins versus non globins, was a comparison between the likelihood of the protein with the globins profile hmm, and the null model. This test gave us 100% of accuracy! To display this result graph, each sequence was pointed out in a graph where the horizontal axis displays the length of the sequence and the vertical the log of globins / null models likelihood (or globins - null model loglikelihood). The globins are plotted in red an the others in blue. Proteins over the zero line are classified as globins, and below means they aren't globins. The graphs show us a clear distinction between the classes, and that our model is very precise for this problem.
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| Length x log(Globin's Profile Model Likelihood/Null Model Likelihood) |
